As the examples above are different parts of speech, that helps greatly in reading back, but similar pairs that are the same parts of speech present the greatest danger of misreading. If you write extremely small outlines, the distinctions will be more difficult to maintain. Ing plus T or D needs to have the full stroke added, as the halved form is unavailable, being allocated to N-D.
Note: ink inked wink winked show the K because it is part of the original outline. They can do this because phrasing is a matter of choice and you would only use it if you felt it was readable and convenient: at one time, considerable time, if it is possible, I am unable to b Either word of the compound ends in T or D The compound word as a whole is treated the same as a word of more than one syllable.
One of the words may end up halved, and so be written differently than when standing alone: copy right but copyright, up right but upright, right angle but right-angle brush wood but brushwood, go ahead but go-ahead, cow hide but cowhide Top of page Vowel placement Vowels are placed to the stroke as normal, and read before or after that stroke. The three places of the vowels are closer together along the stroke, so that more care is needed when inserting them.
Each vowel sign must stay with its own stroke, and so the rule regarding putting a third-place vowel against the next stroke does not apply here: Pitman goodness goodwill biddable cottage potato First up or downstroke of outline is halved The first up or downstroke is the one that is placed in position to match the vowel, and it continues to do so even if halved.
Any downstrokes following it may end up going through the line, but that is irrelevant, only the first up or downstroke needs to be in position. Note that the hook is being used to indicate another complete word, not a sound within a word: part of, sort of, in spite of, instead of, state of Top of page When not to use a Final Vowel When a final vowel follows the T or D sound, a full stroke T or D is necessary in order to place the vowel sign, thus indicating the existence of a final vowel without actually writing it: pit pity bud buddy tat tatty dad daddy chat chatty Jude Judy kit kitty good goody fat fatty avid video meat meaty mid media knot knotty need needy lot Lottie late latte wit witty hat Hattie The presence of the full Tee or Dee stroke at the end of an outline does not always mean that a vowel follows, because the monosyllable rule above sometimes requires a full stroke for other reasons.
In such cases inserting the last vowel should be considered, and always inserted in names: pad Paddy bat batty Ted Teddy dot dotty jet jetty cad caddy get Getty fad faddy Fred Freddy shade shady lad laddie red ready wood woody head heady b Allowing full vocalisation Halving is not used where this would prevent the full vocalisation of the outline. This generally occurs where a medial T or D sound is followed by a Circle S, which itself cannot be vocalised, thus requiring a stroke against which to write the vowel that comes after the T underlined : anticipate antiseptic reticent criticism absolutism conservatism egotism participle catastrophe Most outlines are constructed to enable full vocalisation, and abbreviation methods generally take a lower priority.
The lack of somewhere to put a vowel sign would imply that there is no vowel to place, thus reducing legibility. Exceptions are made on an individual basis to gain a more facile outline, so long as it remains readable unwritable vowels underlined : despotism protestation pragmatism patriotism favouritism scepticism rheumatism c Joining strokes of differing lengths Strokes of differing lengths must show a clear angle of join.
Note that it is the last stroke that is halved. This also allows derivatives to match. This improves legibility, although the outlines may be slightly slower to write.
This is especially important as context cannot help. As its vowel is slurred, this is not a problem. Doubling is not used when the vowel is an accented one, full strokes are used, to enable the outline to be vocalised. Doubled strokes are not quite so straightforward as normal length strokes to place in position: Downstrokes all go through the line, as their angle is steep and crossing the line cannot be avoided.
It is possible to start first position outlines higher up, but this does not really make a lot of difference and should not be relied upon. Occasional extra vocalisation would be a wise precaution. Upstrokes are written at a shallower angle, taking up less vertical space, and they can therefore have the normal three positions.
This is easier to achieve because the lowest part of the stroke is at the beginning — there is slightly more control over the beginning part of any stroke or outline than at the end. Horizontal strokes are positioned as normal, i. Where the doubled stroke is not the one that is being put in position i. Top of page Straight Strokes A doubled plain straight stroke looks identical to two of the same stroke in succession see below , and so doubling is only used when there are other attachments to help with the legibility of the outline.
Top of page rector director recruiter tractor stricter instructor propagator instigator allocator alligator electoral ejector projector objector banqueter nectar indicator protector protractor extractor adjudicator absconder speculator incinerator moderator twitter outwitter embroider illustrator bequeather persuader dissuader curator operator respirator macerator accelerator Top of page Curved Strokes Curved strokes are doubled for all the sounds.
Unlike straight strokes, no restriction is necessary because a double curved stroke does not resemble two of the same stroke in succession. As there is never a vowel after it, it never changes direction to indicate a following vowel, as the normal length Ell can sometimes do: penholder ventilator newsletter insulator insulter moneylender ringleader scolder helter-skelter, in this letter Note: alternative alteration alternator literal littoral lateral collateral poulterer Top of page Ing Doubling Ing adds -ker -ger The doubled stroke is exactly the same sound as the normal length hooked form, but is only used where the hooked form does not join easily or if it is the only stroke in the outline.
As the latter are less common, always vocalise them. As it is a short form, it is never vocalised, and it sits on the line.
Top of page In Phrases Doubling can be used in phrases for "there their other dear". Generally all short forms consisting of a full stroke can be doubled to add these words. An R sound is always represented in Pitman's Shorthand, despite the fact that many variations of English do not pronounce it clearly or at all. Dot Hay — a dot written next to the following vowel, used when the other methods are not convenient or possible. In compound words and derivatives, the form that joins best is generally used.
Only used to represent the sound. A silent longhand H is not represented in shorthand. As many examples as possible have been given, so that you can base new outlines on existing known ones. Take care that "hydraulic" and "hydro-electric" are not read for each other. Note that the downward Hay can only take a final Circle S when it is attached to another stroke, because only then is it obvious it is a Hay and not some other stroke.
The first four are taking advantage of halving the Ray, and the last two are avoiding 3 straight strokes in succession which would be illegible: hortative heritage heritable horticulture heritor hierarchy Top of page Tick Hay Downward Hay is reduced to a tick i.
It therefore does not count as the first stroke when placing the outline in position and is not used if a vowel precedes it. The form offered here, using two of stroke Ray, accords with the accented vowels that follow them — take your choice.
Top of page Tick versus full Downward Hay If the H sound has an initial vowel before, or triphone after, use the full stroke. This is the only time that the stroke Hay indicates the presence of a vowel or triphone. Vocalisation should be considered, as in a phrase it is identical to Tick The.
You cannot used both ticks together in a phrase: for whom, in her compare in the air Note the exact placement of first place vowels in regard to the tick — the vowel sign is placed at the extreme end of the stroke, necessary so that the vowel sign is not mistaken for a second place vowel. This does not mean that the vowel is spoken before the H — if there were a vowel before the H, you would be using a full downward Hay stroke to place it against. Note also that the tick does not count as the first up or downstroke: ham haulm hem homestead hemstitch Top of page Dot Hay Use Dot Hay when the other forms cannot conveniently be written.
It is only used if the resultant outline remains legible when unvocalised. The sign for a vowel that is sounded immediately before the H sound also remains with its own stroke, whether first second or third place vowel, because it cannot "jump" over the H, e. If you omit the vowel sign, then also omit the Dot Hay.
Dot Hay on its own is meaningless, but a vowel sign on its own is preferable, when hard-pressed, if you feel the outline needs it for clarity. The Dot Hay is the outer one of the two. The two dots are not side by side in relation to the stroke. Immediately before and beside a dash vowel, which will vary according to the direction of the stroke.
To the left side of a diphthong. Blackheath loophole pinhole manorhouse This can look similar to two vowel signs written together e. This hook is only used for inh- instr- inskr- The hook does not need vocalising, as the vowel is included in the meaning of the hook.
The use of such an abrupt change of direction is always kept to an absolute minimum in the rules of Pitman's Shorthand. Whichever method is used to write the Hay, the final shape is always the same, i. In the first two, the letter R is not sounded at all, the vowel is the same as that in "wool". Not used if the word begins with a vowel. Never omitted unless it is replaced by the medial semicircle in a compound word or phrase.
A vowel on that side counts as coming after the Ar: wear era arrow Final "-ward" "-wort" "-wart" are often represented by halved Way in compound words. It represents the W sound plus the following vowel sound, and replaces that vowel sign — it is written in the same place against the stroke as the vowel sign would occupy.
Never used initially or finally in an outline. May be omitted in fast writing in the same way as vowel signs are, as long as the outline remains readable and not ambiguous. If in doubt, it is safer to write it in. This is the same direction as the short forms "with" "when" which are both dot vowels. This is the same direction as the short forms "what" "would" which are both dash vowels. Mnemonic: you begin writing this one in the same direction as you write a horizontal dash vowel i.
The medial semicircle is occasionally called the "W diphthong" in some older books, reflecting the fact that it is made up of only vowels, even though sometimes it does the job of a consonant when it begins a syllable. As it requires some thought to decide when it is safe to use the medial semicircle instead of stroke Way, it is best to practice as many examples as possible, so that no hesitation occurs during dictation, hence the lengthy but not exhaustive list below.
The resultant outline must be unambiguous even when the semicircle is not written in. For the compound words, I have given the root word in the "compare" line. This allows the outline to reflect the words that the compound word is made from, making the outline more legible: memoir homework i. Shorthand instruction books describe the strokes Hway and Hwel as representing "WH" and "WHL" which is referring to longhand and not to the sounds. It is better to associate the strokes with the sounds they represent, and treat the longhand spelling as a separate matter entirely.
Even though many people do not pronounce the H, you should still learn the different forms because of their usefulness in providing distinguishing outlines and because the longhand still needs to be spelled correctly regardless of popular pronunciation.
Outlines should be consistent and not change to reflect people's differing pronunciation. This is not an additional hook to give an additional sound. It is therefore best to learn the stroke as a whole without mentally taking it apart into its constituent sounds. These two strokes are therefore not compound consonants.
Never written downwards. These two hooks add their sound to the Ell in the same way that Circle S adds its consonant before a stroke i.
The aim is to keep related words looking similar, and have distinctive outlines for words that may have the same consonant structure but a different spread of vowels or different derivation. Top of page Phrases and compound words Whichever form of W is used in the basic outline, this may change to one of the other methods when the word becomes part of a phrase or compound word.
The main consideration is the ease of the join, producing a speedy and reliable outline, but the resultant outline must be easy to read back, even when vowels and unattached signs are omitted. It is seldom necessary to insert any of the unattached semicircles when writing phrases, but they are shown in some of the examples, so that you know where the signs belong.
Stroke Way replaced by medial semicircle. They also need to have a semicircle at all times, whether attached or unattached, because in phrases or compound words they could be read as "man" "men". The phrase "men and women" is common enough to remain unvocalised, but in other phrases vowels may be necessary to show whether these words are singular or plural. The verb "will" in phrases is represented by a plain upward Ell and the semicircle is not necessary — it is always very clear what is meant and to insert it would defeat the purpose of the phrase, which is to gain speed.
When "will" is used as a noun, it can take the semicircle, if felt necessary: will, I will, he will, that you will be, if he will have but goodwill freewill "Were" in phrases takes whatever form is easiest to write.
Again, the meaning is always clear because the word groupings involved are so common, and medial semicircle or vowel signs need not be written: were, you were, they were "Well" in phrases does take a medial semicircle, but is easily omitted without losing clarity: well, very well, so well Rather than hesitate over semicircles during a dictation, you should use full strokes or write the two halves of the outline separately and then find out the correct outline later.
Even in longhand there is often a question over whether to write something as two words, a hyphenated word or one word. Writing a longer outline or two outlines is far preferable to hesitating and losing the next few words.
Making an awkward join, when separate outlines would be more readable and reliable, is also a hindrance.
However, joining or not joining can indicate different uses of the same two words, shown up by where the emphasis falls in the sentence underlined.
In the second of each of the sentences below, joining the outlines would be inappropriate and make the shorthand awkward to read back: I saw the cat-walk. I saw the cat walk. This person is trustworthy. We can trust Worthy to do the job. We arrived last week. His last weak excuse was not accepted. Short Form Why This sign is unlike any other. Prior to the Centenary version of Pitman's Shorthand in , this was the sign for the W or HW plus the "eye" sound, as in "wife" "Wight" "white", and also the short form "why" that we still use.
It behaved like the W semicircle — sometimes joined initially to certain strokes, sometimes unattached medially. Longhand often uses the letter W to indicate a long vowel. To continue the direction of curve of the preceding or next stroke, or its hook or circle, i. Make a legible join with the next stroke in the outline.
This may necessitate ignoring the rule of similar motion. With certain strokes, to differentiate between words that have an initial or final vowel and those that do not. Vowel indication only occurs in cases where both directions of Ell are equally convenient.
Some of the words naturally fall into pairs e. An initial downwards Ell cannot take an initial circle or loop. Note the placing of the vowel signs against the Ell: first place vowels are written at the beginning of the stroke, which with downwards Ell is at the top. In such cases it is behaving similarly to stroke Chay. This does not produce an ideal join to the Ell shallow angle, and both strokes going backwards but does allow similar motion between the En and Ell.
Presumably the thickness of Jay helps readability despite the poor join compare with "unlatch" below. Ell used in phrases for "will" is normally upwards.
Special outlines London Londoner Londonderry but generally thus: Landon Linton After small Shun Hook, follow the motion — most of them have downward Ell: sensational positional conversational transitional compensational Top of page e These not only continue the motion, but also produce compact outlines with clear sharp joins film fulminate volume voluminous vellum Velma realm column columnar calumny Coleman calamity coulomb calamine columbine Colombo Columbus skulk skullcap but skulker onlooker to join the Ker helterskelter compare skelter scolder scalder — one might expect upwards Ell in the second part of "helterskelter" in order to retain the direction of the circle, but compactness is more important here.
For compactness: unwarlike mirrorlike lawyerlike Compare warlike warily rarely relic Top of page 2. Clear join with preceding or next stroke Downwards Ell does not always make a good join with the following stroke, or may produce an outline with too much backward movement, so in some cases the rule of similar motion cannot be used. With some of the words beginning "-un" this has the incidental advantage of retaining the outlines they are derived from: inlaid unlaid unled unload unladen unladylike unlatch unlearn unlovable unleavened unleash unlettered unlighted unlikelihood unlaboured unlabelled unsullied insulted unsling enslave unsaleable facile but facility fuselage fossilology footslog Note distinguishing outlines: unsold unsoiled unsold has the shorter outline as it is the most frequent word; outlines with diphthongs very often keep the strokes in full Hook L is used in a few instances even though vowels may intervene where it produces a brief and distinctive outline that cannot clash with anything else more such outlines on Theory 7 Hooks R L page : analytic enliven molecule Top of page 3.
Vowel indication For initial and final Ell, and only with certain strokes, different in each case. Vowel indication never occurs medially — medial Ell is chosen only for convenience and to a lesser degree to show derivatives.
Downward Ell standing alone never takes a hook, as this would look like stroke Wel. Normal upwards Ell is used, which also achieves similar motion: scrawl scrawly scroll scrolly secretly The rule for final vowel indication is stretched to include these: actual actually structural structurally artistical artistically fantastical fantastically statistical statistically logistical logistically egotistical egotistically These follow similar motion, but do not vary for final vowel indication: intellectual intellectually conjectural conjecturally electoral Note: electorial When a suffix is adding another L sound to a word that already ends in L, the outline repeats the Ell, to reflect the lengthened pronunciation.
Only an extra final dot is needed: weasel weaselly tinsel tinselly It is always helpful to insert the final vowel sign if the outline itself does not show whether there is a final vowel or not. A small number of words with halved strokes take a downward Ell to achieve similar motion with the preceding curve, hook or circle. Such words generally do not come in pairs like "full fully" and so similar motion is the only issue: completely boldly bloodless softly swiftly exactly adequately worldly Compare proudly broadly sprightly strictly contritely where the normal upward Ell achieves similar motion as a matter of course.
Note also short form coldly. Top of page Derivatives Some derivative outlines may change the direction of the stroke Ell. In those cases the Ell is repeated. This section on negatives points up the necessity for shorthand writers to have a good grasp of how English words are formed and their meanings.
These and similar negatives are also described on Theory 18 Prefixes page. This is the same liberty that is being taken when the first place "I" diphthong is joined to the end of the stroke e. The short form includes the L sound, so no stroke Ell is required: almost always all-wise all-round all-rounder almighty already although altogether all-important all-in Top of page Downstroke Ler Downward Ell is thickened to add the unaccented sound of "-er".
It is it is only used where a downward Ell would normally be used, i. No vowel sign is required for the unaccented vowel within it. The stroke Ld is always written downwards. No vowel comes between the L and D sounds, and no vowel comes after it. Ray joins better in most combinations. It is faster to write than Ar and, because there are more downstrokes than upstrokes in Pitman's Shorthand, using Ray keeps a large number of outlines from descending too far.
If the vowel calls for Ar, it is used where it joins well, mainly before horizontal or upstrokes: barely bearskin Brierley terseness tiresome tireless sparsely scarcely securely doorman determine similarly requirement diurnal angular binocular Ar is sometimes used before a right clockwise curve to gain a more flowing outline, despite a vowel following it: quarrel squirrel flourish aneurism neural neuralgia but neurotic neurosis Top of page 3.
A non-standard suggested contraction could be to disjoin or intersect stroke En with "surmountable" and write in 3rd position. Before Kay Gay vowel indication is often possible: fork ferric forego farrago cork Carrick cargo Garrick clerk cleric lark lyric Sark cirque sarcasm circus circuit stark Syriac Syracuse sirocco stearic resurrect insurrection Top of page 5.
Keeping them in your vocabulary notebook whenever they are encountered is helpful, so they can be practised further. After 2 downstrokes use Ray to keep the outline from descending too far: prepare despair disappear aspire stapler taxpayer ratepayer horse-power proposer trespasser Shakespeare occasionally Shakespere babbler troubler butler splutterer totterer chatterer hairdresser discoverer ditherer tax-gatherer treasurer bookstore downstairs upstairs endorser brigadier bugbear blusterer pesterer plasterer Note: fosterer to avoid awkward join After Eff and Vee, Ar gives a more facile outline, which outweighs having 3 downstrokes: pacifier testifier defier decipherer justifier exemplifier baffler trifler muffler shuffler shoveller Top of page 2.
The resulting join between Ray and Ar is not ideal, so care is needed to write accurately: rarer roarer hurrier hairier abhorrer adherer but horror horary Note the following where the hook or circle shows the junction: harasser rehearse rehearser resorter referrer reverter heronry hero-worship The above outlines need not invade the line above, because they are written at a shallow angle.
Invading the line above is not critical, because that line is already written; descending too far is more to be avoided because you will have to jump over the lower part of that outline when writing on the next line.
Top of page 7. This is in contrast to single syllable derivatives, which generally change their form as necessary e. Pairs of such outlines need to be distinctive as most of the time they will be unvocalised.
This is achieved by changing the R stroke if possible, or adding an additional R stroke. This method is only concerned with producing pairs of different outlines and avoiding bad joins, not with showing the meaning of the prefix or any attempt to reflect the two R's in the longhand: 1.
Change Ray to Ar, this accords with normal vowel indication: relevant irrelevant replaceable irreplaceable retrievable irretrievable religious irreligious 2. If the Ray cannot be changed because a bad join would result, then add Ar to the beginning. No vowel sign comes between the two R strokes: radiate irradiate reclaimable irreclaimable redeemable irredeemable reducible irreducible rational irrational 3. If unsure about an "irr-" word during dictation, add the extra initial Ar anyway, whether it is correct or not — it will be perfectly legible.
Avoiding hesitation during dictation is the highest priority, but the outline should be looked up and drilled at the first opportunity, so that you are always using the shortest outline available.
R not shown Suffixes -ward -wort -wart -yard. These are unvocalised when used as suffixes. See Theory 10 Halving page for description and examples. Only the hooked form can be halved. When no vowel follows, the P is hardly sounded. It is therefore omitted and a halved Em is used to represent the M P T sound. This reflects the pronunciation and produces a shorter outline. Do not be misled by the final "-ed" in the longhand spelling, the pronunciation is always the T sound.
The compound sound MBD i. With such words you could use stroke Imp if you wanted, but your outline would not match the theory book or the dictionary. You cannot however use a thickened halved Em, because that is not available, being already used to represent plain MD. What people say when they are speaking carefully may be entirely different from their pronunciation in actual fast usage. Top of page 2. A lone stroke, thickened, halved and with shun hook is too indistinct to be reliable.
The two strokes shown above represent identical sounds, and which to use depends on the convenience of the join. If the word is derived from one that uses a hook i. Top of page Finally 1.
The reason for this is not explained, but I am assuming it is to provide an extra differentiation between the two strokes. A non-theory suggestion would be to write "fiendish" with the Ish through the line. Compare with "misshape" above. If all the curves went the same way, the outline would be difficult to read and become illegible when written at speed.
Top of page Words of non-English origin Words of French origin often pronounce their longhand "ch" with the Ish sound, although the rest of the word generally accords with English pronunciation.
If you used Ish you would then have to change the past tenses to much longer outlines with full stroke Dee. SK: schema scholar schizophrenia schizanthus scherzo schism ischiatic eschatology scholium schooner Pasch paschal CH: escheat eschew kitsch klatsch 1. The dot represents the whole of the syllable — do not write an extra stroke M or N just because the longhand has two of that letter. The con dot is not omitted in the way that vowel dots are omitted at will. With some stroke combinations chiefly after Pee Bee Tee Dee it may be possible to also indicate the vowel of the second part by writing that in position as well, but not at the expense of keeping the two close together.
Disjoining: writing the parts of an outline near to each other because a they cannot be joined satisfactorily, or b detaching a portion of the outline to signify another suffix, e. Its name reflects the fact that the parts would be joined if they could, or were joined to start with.
When using proximity, the outlines take their position from the first vowel of the word, as normal. In the following, the initial prefix is the first up or downstroke, so that is the one that takes its rightful position in regard to the line. The second half of the outline can also be in position according to its vowel, but only if a convenient outline results: decompose decompression decontaminate discontinue discomfort disconnect disconcerting ill-concealed ill-conceived ill-considered malcontent overconfident overcompensate preconceive preconception precondition recompense recommend recommendation reconcile reconnoitre recondite recombine recondition reconsider reconstruct recommit reconnect recommence subconscious subcommittee subcontract subcontinent well-conducted well-constructed well-connected well-concealed Top of page In the following, the initial prefix is a horizontal stroke.
The first up or downstroke comes somewhere after the con-, so that is the stroke that is written in position in regard to the line. Unlike the "medial con" words listed above, the con- word in such phrases must retain its correct position in regard to the ruled line. Sometimes the con- word cannot be placed clearly in the combination and is better written with the con dot: Clear combination: should commend, and command, on the committee, beyond the control Needs dot: should command, and commend, on the connection, beyond control, would complete When a vowel-sign short forms is part of a phrase, then proximity can be used because the con- word is being written near a stroke rather than just a floating dot or dash: for the conditions, in the committee, for all consumers, if you would consider Compare: The conditions The committee All consumers would consider If you decide to leave a larger-than-usual space between outlines in order to signify your future punctuation in the transcript, then clearly proximity is not possible.
It would not be appropriate anyway because it should only be used for words that run on easily as per normal phrasing rules and not where there is a natural gap or pause. As shorthand speed is helped by having reasonably compact notes rather than sprawling ones, it is important that only the clearest proximity phrases are used.
When in doubt, retain the dot for the con- word rather than risk a hesitation or unclear notes. Alternatives are given here because the shorthand dictionary does not reflect current pronunciation.
The prefix is joined only for "accommodation" and "accomplish" as those outlines are distinctive enough not to be mistaken for other words.
As they are both nouns, adding Circle S to the short form would be ambiguous. The reflector is made of Kevlar honeycomb core sandwiched between two composite face sheets. Mars Perseverance Landing Press Kit. NASA is preparing to launch a spacecraft to study the upper atmosphere of the planet Mars.
Have you ever asked the question, what is out there? So have we! That curiosity leads us to explore new places like Mars and its moons, Phobos and Deimos. Just what lies beyond the next valley, can Surveyors Wanted to Explore Mars and its Moons. Colorful Mawrth Vallis. Conceptual image of wind blue arrows flowing over rugged Martian terrain and generating disturbances that propagate upward as atmospheric gravity waves grey lines.
This stereoscopic anaglyph image was created from a left and right stereo pair of images of the Mars Science Laboratory mission's rover, Curiosity.
Basically, what we do is we take Mars atmosphere, we run it into a unit called a solid oxide electrolysis unit, which is basically a fuel cell in reverse. So, this is a solid oxide electrolysis unit, what happens is we have Mars atmosphere enter in this line, goes into the SOXE unit. It's then heated up to degrees Celsius. We inject energy into the cathode and anode, and then what happens is oxygen is separated from the CO2 and comes out this line over here.
To test this technology, you're gonna need some Martian atmosphere. Where on Earth are you gonna find that? We know the composition of Martian atmosphere.
We call it "Mars mixed gas," and we use it for most of our testing. Well, what if we land on top of a mountain or down in a valley? The conditions for extracting oxygen are totally different. So, the way we test for it is we designed an instrumentation system that covers all of the conditions of the instrument: lower pressures, higher pressures, clogging filters, oxygen purity, all of that stuff.
It's very difficult to bring something from the surface of the Earth to the surface of Mars, and it costs millions and millions of dollars. We're excited to see it on the Mars mission, check back soon for some more Crazy Engineering. What's up Watney?
Let's see how close we are on this episode of Crazy Engineering. So how do we make oxygen on the surface of Mars? Reverse fuel cell?! How does that work?
0コメント